The Day Will Pass Away Read online

  THE DAY WILL PASS AWAY

  THE DIARY OF A GULAG PRISON GUARD

  1935-1936

  IVAN CHISTYAKOV

  Contents

  List of Illustrations

  Introduction

  The Diary of a Gulag Prison Guard

  Translator’s Note

  Appendix

  Rebels

  Shock Workers

  The Hunt

  Memorial International Human Rights Society, Moscow, and the Preservation of Historical Memory

  Illustrations

  All images and captions have been provided by Memorial International Human Rights Society, Moscow.

  1 Pages from Ivan Chistyakov’s diary

  2 Aksametova, leader of a zek women’s phalanx

  3 Cover of a magazine for BAMLag guards: Bulletin of the Consultative Bureau of BAMLag NKVD Armed Guards, No. 1, 1935. State Archive of the Russian Federation

  4 Zeks checking the laying of sleepers on the track

  5 Backfilling the track with aggregate

  6 A zek bugler signals a warning of explosives detonation

  7 Zek with pickaxe

  8 Zeks eating in the open

  9 Chekists in charge of the BAM camp and construction project

  10 Zek women’s brigade loading wagons with subsoil for track subgrade

  11 Pages from Ivan Chistyakov’s second notebook

  Introduction

  Irina Shcherbakova

  ‘My life is in this diary . . . ’

  Ivan Chistyakov’s diary is unique historical testimony. He commanded an armed guard platoon on a section of BAM, the Baikal–Amur Mainline railway, which was built using forced labour. We have few memoirs written by people on this side of the barbed wire. Chistyakov’s diary, written inside the Gulag, gives a day-by-day account of life there over twelve months in 1935–6 and is probably unique. The original diary is in the safekeeping of Memorial International Human Rights Centre in Moscow which, since the late 1980s, has been collecting documents, testimony, memoirs, and letters relevant to the history of political repression in the USSR. It was given to them by people who had stumbled upon it among papers left by a distant female relative.

  The diary consists of two medium-sized exercise books. One describes three days in August 1934, which Chistyakov spent hunting, before he was conscripted into the interior troops and sent to BAM. His notes, illustrated by the author, are reminiscent of Ivan Turgenev’s classic A Hunter’s Sketches and are included here as an appendix. They suggest nostalgia for the old, pre-revolutionary Russia and are in total contrast to the second notebook, written in 1935–6 when Chistyakov was working in the Gulag, and which makes up the body of this book.

  We know very little about the man. Apart from his notebooks, we have only a blurred snapshot, on the back of which there is a note: ‘Chistyakov, Ivan Petrovich, repressed in 1937–8. Died at the front in Tula Province in 1941’. All other biographical information has to be gleaned from the diary.

  How old was its author? Evidently over thirty because he mentions that he has already lived half his life, and that he had been at the front. Even if that refers to fighting in 1920–21 towards the end of the Civil War, he would have to have been at least eighteen or nineteen years old.

  Before being conscripted into the army (to his great misfortune he was drafted into the interior troops), Ivan Chistyakov lived in Moscow, not far from Sadovo-Kudrinskaya Square on the inner ring road, and probably had secondary vocational education. He took the tram to work, went to the theatre, played sport, enjoyed sketching, and in general lived much like any other relatively educated Soviet city dweller of the early 1930s. (Their way of life is characterized in the prose of such writers of the time as Yury Olesha, Mikhail Zoshchenko, and Mikhail Bulgakov.)

  Ivan Petrovich Chistyakov had a thoroughly ordinary Russian name, but also had non-proletarian social antecedents, which would have counted against him at that time. He was expelled from the Communist Party during one of the extensive purges of the late 1920s and early 1930s when ‘socially alien elements’ were deprived of their Party card. (Chistyakov believed he was sent to BAM because the authorities already regarded him as suspect.)

  What his work was before he was conscripted is not clear from the diary. He may have taught at a technical college or been an engineer. He does not seem to have had a family; although he occasionally mentions receiving a letter or parcel, he never refers to a wife or children.

  Chistyakov was drafted into the interior troops just as Stalin’s vast projects, under the direction of the OGPU-NKVD* secret police, were getting under way. The Gulag,† a vast network of forced labour camps, was in the course of being created and had an acute shortage of staff. In autumn 1935 he was sent to one of its most remote and terrible locations, BAMLag: the Baikal– Amur Corrective Labour Camp.

  BAMLag

  In 1932, the Council of People’s Commissars of the USSR gave orders for a Baikal–Amur Mainline railway to be constructed. BAM was a project of strategic importance, and was initially entrusted to the Commissariat of Transport and Communications. It was given a mere three and a half years to complete the project because of the situation in the Russian far east. Japan had occupied Manchuria in 1931-2, effectively depriving Russia of the Chinese Eastern Railway.‡ This was the main link between Vladivostok, Russia’s only major port in the region and home port of the Pacific Ocean Fleet, and Siberia and the central regions of Russia. The remaining Trans-Siberian Railway was single track in many places, and for more than 1,000 kilometres ran close to the Soviet border with Manchuria. The southern part of Sakhalin Island belonged to Japan, and a second, more northerly, outlet to the Pacific coast was of major strategic importance to the USSR.

  Despite a propaganda campaign, it proved impossible to mobilize the huge numbers of workers needed for hard labour in the extreme conditions of what a popular song in a Soviet propaganda film called ‘our near and dear Far East’. It was soon clear that the only way to complete the task set by Stalin in such a short time was to use unpaid forced labour.

  Accordingly, responsibility for the project was transferred to the OGPU. Following completion of the White Sea–Baltic Canal, the first large-scale construction project of the Gulag using forced labour, thousands of people were redeployed to BAM. Vast numbers of prisoners and exiles (mainly dispossessed, so-called ‘wealthy’ kulak peasants) flooded into BAMLag.

  In mid-1935, shortly before Chistyakov arrived, some 170,000 prisoners were already working there, and when the camp was disbanded in May 1938 the number had risen to over 200,000. The total number of prisoners held in the Soviet Gulag at that time was over 1.8 million.

  Administration

  In 1935, BAMLag extended over an enormous area, from Chita to Ussuriysk (about a hundred kilometres short of Vladivoskok), a distance of more than 2,000 kilometres. It was administered from Svobodny in the Far East Region.

  The first director of BAMLag was Sergey Mrachkovsky, an old Bolshevik and, in the recent past, a member of the Trotskyite opposition. In September 1933, when the project was vastly expanded, the entire management of BAMLag, including Mrachkovsky, was arrested in connection with a criminal case against the ‘Counter-Revolutionary Trotskyite Group’.

  The new director of BAMLag was Naftaliy Frenkel, one of the most odious creators of the Gulag system. Prior to being put in charge of BAM, Frenkel had had an extraordinary career. In the early 1920s he was found guilty of embezzlement and smuggling and sent to the Solovki camp on islands in the White Sea. In the course of a few years, Frenkel transformed himself from a convict into the director of the camp’s production section. On his release he enrolled in the service of the OGPU. From 1931–3, Frenkel was chief of works o
n the OGPU’s White Sea–Baltic Canal project.

  In his novel Life and Fate Vasily Grossman portrays this new world of prison camps and its organizer:

  At the beginning of Lenin’s New Economic Policy, Frenkel set up a motor factory in Odessa. In the mid-1920s he was arrested and exiled to Solovki. While serving his sentence, he submitted a brilliant plan to Stalin in which he proposed, with full economic and technical argumentation, that huge numbers of prisoners should be exploited to create roads, dams, power stations, and reservoirs. The Leader was greatly taken by his suggestion. The traditional pattern of forced labour, with its hallowed convict battalions and old-fashioned penal servitude, toiling with spades, axes, pickaxes, and saws, was invaded by the twentieth century.

  The world of the camps began assimilating technical progress, drawing into its orbit electrically powered locomotives, excavators, bulldozers, electric saws, turbines, ore-cutting machinery, and a vast fleet of vehicles and tractors. This world mastered the use of aircraft for transportation and communications, wireless and intercom telephony, automated machinery, and ultra-modern ore enrichment technology. It planned, designed, sketched and created mines, factories, new seas and gargantuan power stations. It developed explosively, leaving the old-time forced labour looking as touching and comical as children playing with toy bricks.§

  One of these ambitious new Gulag projects was BAM, a complex railway project extending over many kilometres. Like all the other camp construction projects, however, its implementation involved the murderous exploitation of manual labour, of hundreds of thousands of prisoners using spades, wheelbarrows, pickaxes and saws.

  Grossman fully recognized the importance of Frenkel’s role. He survived in charge of the BAMLag project for the whole of the subsequent period, and was one of the few Gulag officials not to be arrested. He managed to stay in this highly risky position, and even to advance his career.¶ Frenkel began his period in charge of BAMLag by radically restructuring the camp subdivisions. As a master organizer and connoisseur of camp life, he created ‘phalanxes’, specialist brigades of 250 to 300 men in which all the prisoners were dependent on each other to ensure they met their obligations under the Plan and competed successfully for rations. Chistyakov frequently mentions these phalanxes in the diary. The realities of the new system are accurately described by Varlam Shalamov,# the author of Kolyma Tales, who in the early 1930s found himself on the wrong side of the barbed wire:

  It was only in the early 1930s that a solution was found to the crucial question of what was more effective: the stick, or the carrot of linking the level of food rations to production output. It was realized that a sliding scale of rations and/or the promise of a remission of sentence could induce even ‘saboteurs’ and career criminals to work hard and effectively, without pay, even when the guards were not present. They would also inform on and betray their fellows for the sake of a cigarette or an approving glance from the concentration camp bosses.**

  The system proposed by such Gulag innovators as Frenkel consisted of using ‘unpaid forced labour where a variable scale of food rations was combined with the hope of early release in return for accumulated labour credit points. This was worked out in immense detail, with extremely large variations in the inducements and punishments in the camps. A prisoner in the punishment cells would be allotted 100 grams of bread every second day, while one who achieved the onerous “Stakhanov norm”, as it was officially called, would qualify for a whole 2 kilograms of bread daily.†† That is how prisoners were incentivized to construct the White Sea–Baltic Canal and the Moscow-Volga Canal built during the First Five-Year Plan. It had a major economic impact.

  ‘It had a no less major impact on the moral degradation of those in charge, on the prisoners, and other citizens. A person who is strong in spirit grows stronger in prison. The camps, however, with their tantalizing promise of early release, degraded everyone: the chief and his subordinate, the free, employed labourer and the prisoner, the platoon commander and the hired metal worker,’ Shalamov writes.‡‡

  Every month, Frenkel received contingents of new convicts and his camp mushroomed. In early 1933 the BAMLag network consisted of only two camp divisions constructing the main branch of BAM, but later a majority of prisoners were redeployed to build a second track for the Trans-Siberian Railway. Numerous sections and independent camp centres were set up along this entire stretch of the railway. The second section of BAMLag (where Chistyakov ended up) was a vast, industrious anthill. It was engaged in constructing this second railway track, locomotive maintenance depots, railway stations and other civilian facilities. These included engineering workshops, ancillary farming projects, its own propaganda brigade, and a camp printing press. There were production phalanxes consisting of hundreds of prisoners (or ‘soldiers of the track’ as they were called in NKVD propaganda in the first half of the 1930s), phalanxes for miscreants and malingerers, and isolation cells for offenders.§§

  The BAMLag prisoners built the railway in unbelievably severe geographical and climatic conditions, in extremes of cold and heavy downpours of rain. They laid the rails through untamed territories of the Far East, building through mountains, rivers and swamps, overcoming cliffs, permafrost, and sodden subsoil. Under such conditions construction work would normally be considered possible for no more than a hundred days in the year, but the prisoners worked all year round, whatever the weather, for sixteen to eighteen hours a day. Many contracted ‘chicken blindness’: when darkness fell they ceased to be able to see; malaria, colds, rheumatism and gastric ailments took their toll.

  As a result of the inhuman exploitation of the labour of tens of thousands of people, by the end of 1937 the main part of BAMLag’s task of laying a second track on the line from Karymskaya to Khabarovsk was completed. The prisoners were now switched to laying a second track of the Trans-Siberian Railway all the way to the Pacific Ocean, to building a number of military highways, and to embarking on construction of BAM itself, running from Taishet, north-west of Lake Baikal to Sovetskaya Gavan, a total length of 4,643 kilometres.

  What Frenkel had under his command was no mere camp, but an enormous army of slaves and overseers scattered across vast expanses of territory from Lake Baikal to the Pacific Ocean. The previous management system was no longer adequate, and in May 1938 BAMLag was split into six separate camps under a special NKVD Gulag Directorate of Railway Construction in the Far East, headed by Frenkel.

  With the outbreak of the Second World War in 1941, this enormous construction effort was halted; the Gulag simply had insufficient people and resources. The laying of the new section of the Baikal–Amur Railway from Taishet to Sovetskaya Gavan was resumed only in the 1970s, when thousands of youth brigades, which were designated Young Communist Shock Troops, were sent out there. The project took a further twelve years and was completed shortly before the start of perestroika. This section of the railway has since been renamed. It is no longer known as BAM.

  Cogs of the system

  Our picture of the world of the camps comes primarily from memoirs left by former prisoners who were victims of repression. Nowadays we can learn how the Gulag system functioned, its mechanisms and structures, from archives where thousands of documents are preserved. We also know a lot more about the organizers and those in charge of the Gulag.

  We know little, however, about the ‘man with a rifle’ on the other side of the barbed wire. We have little understanding of the so-called cogs of that enormous machine of repression. Exprisoners, as we see from numerous memoirs, most often recalled their investigators, the interrogators in prison after their arrest who compiled records and indictments, to say nothing of those investigators who were unambiguously sadists and torturers and were widespread in 1937–8 during the Great Terror. It would be difficult not to remember such people. Moreover, it was the investigators who determined the fate and length of sentence in the camps of those arrested. Prisoners often saw that particular individual, rather than the repressive machinery of t
he state, as the source of the violence, injustice, and brutality visited on them.

  Those who guarded the prisoners tend not to figure in the reminiscences of people who spent many years in the camps. Guards changed frequently, all looked much the same, and the prisoners generally only recollected a particular one if he unexpectedly acted with compassionate humanity or exceptional cruelty. The prisoners’ attitude towards those guarding them is described by Alexander Solzhenitsyn in The Gulag Archipelago:

  It was a failing on our part: when you are in prison or a labour camp the personality of the jailers interests you only to the extent that it enables you to avoid being threatened by them or to exploit their weaknesses. For the rest, you have no inclination to take an interest in them: they are unworthy of your attention . . . but now, belatedly you realize that you failed to take a sufficient interest in them . . . Would anyone who was in the least capable of useful activity go to work as a prison camp guard? We need to ask the more general question of whether a camp guard could ever be a good person. What system of moral selection had life put them through? Any human being with the least glimmer of spiritual maturity, with the least stirrings of conscience, the ability to distinguish good from evil, would instinctively struggle with all the means at his disposal against ending up in the ranks of that dismal legion. But suppose he didn’t succeed? A secondary selection follows during training and the initial period of service, when the administration itself looks closely and winnows out all those who manifest, not a strong will and firmness (brutality and heartlessness), but weakness (kindness). After that comes a third phase of selection over a period of many years: those who did not realize where they were headed, and what was being proposed to them, now understand and are horrified. To be continually the tool of violence, a constant participant in evil, is not something everybody is immediately capable of. You are trampling other people’s destinies underfoot. Inside you something is resisting, and breaks, and you simply can’t go on living that way! Very belatedly, people did start struggling to get out, claiming to be ill, obtaining certificates, taking a cut in salary, stripping off their epaulettes – anything just to get away from it all! Were the rest, then, sucked in? The others got used to it and their fate struck them as normal. Of course it was ‘useful’, even honourable. And some had no need to be sucked in, because they were already there.¶¶